David Reimer | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Born |
Bruce Peter Reimer
22 August 1965 |
| Died | 4 May 2004 (aged 38) Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
|
| Cause of death | Suicide by shotgun |
| Resting place | St. Vital Cemetery, Winnipeg |
| Other names |
|
| Spouse |
Jane Fontane (m. 1990) |
David Reimer (born Bruce Peter Reimer; 22 August 1965 – 4 May 2004) was a Canadian man born male but raised as a girl following medical advice and intervention after his penis was severely injured during a botched circumcision in infancy.
The psychologist John Money oversaw the case and reported the reassignment as successful and as evidence that gender identity is primarily learned. The academic sexologist Milton Diamond later reported that Reimer's realization that he was not a girl crystallized between the ages of 9 and 11 years and that he was living as a male by age 15. Well known in medical circles for years anonymously as the "John/Joan" case, Reimer later went public with his story to help discourage similar medical practices. At age 38, he committed suicide after suffering severe depression.
Life
Infancy
David Reimer was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, on 22 August 1965, the elder of identical twin boys. He was originally named Bruce, and his identical twin was named Brian. Their parents were Janet and Ron Reimer, a couple of Mennonite descent who had married the previous December. At the age of six months, after concern was raised about how both of them urinated, the boys were diagnosed with phimosis. They were referred for circumcision at the age of seven months. General practitioner Dr. Jean-Marie Huot performed the operation using the unconventional method of electrocauterization, but the procedure did not go as doctors had planned, and David's penis was burned beyond surgical repair. The doctors chose not to operate on Brian, whose phimosis soon cleared without surgical intervention.
The parents, concerned about their son's prospects for future happiness and sexual function without a penis, took him to Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore in early 1967 to see John Money, a psychologist who was developing a reputation as a pioneer in the field of sexual development and gender identity, based on his work with intersex patients. Money was a prominent proponent of the "theory of gender neutrality"—that gender identity developed primarily as a result of social learning from early childhood and that it could be changed with the appropriate behavioural interventions. The Reimers had seen Money being interviewed in February 1967 on the Canadian news program This Hour Has Seven Days, during which he discussed his theories about gender.
At the time, surgical construction of the vagina was more advanced than construction of the penis, and Money believed that Reimer would be happiest in adulthood living as a woman with functioning genitalia. Additionally, for Money, a case where identical twin boys were involved where one could be raised as a girl provided a perfect test of his theories.
Money and the Hopkins family team persuaded the baby's parents that sex reassignment surgery would be in Reimer's best interest. At the age of 22 months, David underwent a bilateral orchidectomy, in which his testes were surgically removed and a rudimentary vulva was fashioned. David was reassigned to be raised as female and given the name Brenda (similar to his birth name, "Bruce"). Psychological support for the reassignment and surgery was provided by John Money, who continued to see Reimer annually for consultations and to assess the outcome. This reassignment was considered an especially important test case of the social learning concept of gender identity for two reasons: first, Reimer's identical twin brother, Brian, made an ideal control because the brothers shared genes, family environments, and the intrauterine environment; second, this was reputed to be the first reassignment and reconstruction performed on a male infant who had no abnormality of prenatal or early postnatal sexual differentiation.
Forced "sexual rehearsal"
Money continued to supervise and report on the twins' gender development as the "John/Joan case" until the twins were 13 years old.
According to John Colapinto, who published a biography of Reimer in 2001, the sessions with Money included what Money called "childhood sexual rehearsal play": Money theorized that reproductive behaviour formed the foundation of gender, and that "play at thrusting movements and copulation" was a key aspect of gender development in all primates. Starting at age six, according to Brian, the twins were forced to act out sexual acts, with David playing the female role—Money made Reimer get down on all fours, and Brian was forced to "come up behind [him] and place his crotch against [his] buttocks". Money also forced Reimer, in another sexual position, to have his "legs spread" with Brian on top. On "at least one occasion" Money took a photograph of the two children doing these activities.
When either child resisted these activities, Money would get angry. Both Reimer and Brian recall that Money was mild-mannered around their parents, but ill-tempered when alone with them. When they resisted inspecting each other's genitals, Money got very aggressive. Reimer says, "He told me to take my clothes off, and I just did not do it. I just stood there. And he screamed, 'Now!' Louder than that. I thought he was going to give me a whupping. So I took my clothes off and stood there shaking."
Money's rationale for these various treatments was his belief that "childhood 'sexual rehearsal play'" was important for a "healthy adult gender identity".
Both Reimer and Brian were traumatized by the therapy, with Brian speaking about it "only with the greatest emotional turmoil", and Reimer unwilling to speak about the details publicly, although his wife, Jane Fontane, stated that Reimer had privately told her the same story. Brian was found dead of a drug overdose at 36, and Reimer died by suicide at age 38. Reimer's parents state that Money's methodology was responsible for both deaths.
Money never commented publicly on Colapinto's book or on Reimer's suicide before his death, although colleagues said he was "mortified" by the case.
Puberty and adolescence
Estrogen was given to David during adolescence, inducing breast development.
For several years, Money reported on Reimer's progress as the "John/Joan case". Money wrote, "The child's behavior is so clearly that of an active little girl and so different from the boyish ways of her twin brother."
The twins attended Glenwood School in Winnipeg, with David then attending R.B. Russell Vocational High School, from the age of 14. He eventually ceased attending the school and was tutored privately.
By the age of 13 years, Reimer was experiencing suicidal depression and he told his parents he would take his own life if they made him see Money again. Finally, on 14 March 1980, Reimer's parents told him the truth about his gender reassignment, following advice from Reimer's endocrinologist and psychiatrist. At 14, having been informed of his past by his father, Reimer decided to assume a male gender identity, calling himself David. He underwent treatment to reverse the reassignment, including testosterone injections, a double mastectomy, and phalloplasty operations.
Adulthood
Reimer worked in a slaughterhouse and then worked doing odd jobs. On 22 September 1990, he married Jane Fontane and would adopt her three children. His hobbies included camping, fishing, antiques and collecting old coins.
His case came to international attention in 1997 when he told his story to Milton Diamond, an academic sexologist who persuaded Reimer to allow him to report the outcome in order to dissuade physicians from treating other infants similarly. Soon after, Reimer went public with his story and John Colapinto published a widely disseminated and influential account in Rolling Stone magazine in December 1997. The article won the National Magazine Award for Reporting.
This was later expanded into The New York Times best-selling biography As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl (2000), in which Colapinto described how—contrary to Money's reports—when living as Brenda, Reimer did not identify as a girl. He was ostracized and bullied by peers (who dubbed him "cavewoman"), and neither frilly dresses nor female hormones made him feel female.
Death
In addition to his difficult lifelong relationship with his parents, Reimer experienced unemployment and the death of his brother Brian from an overdose of antidepressants on 1 July 2002. On 2 May 2004, his wife Jane told him she wanted to separate. On the morning of 4 May 2004, Reimer drove to a grocery store's parking lot in his hometown of Winnipeg and shot himself in the head with a sawed-off shotgun. He was 38 years old. He was buried in St. Vital Cemetery in Winnipeg.
Legacy
For the first 30 years after Money's initial report that the reassignment had been a success, Money's view of the malleability of gender became the dominant viewpoint among physicians and doctors, reassuring them that sexual reassignment was the correct decision in certain instances. Researcher Mary Anne Case argues that Money's view on gender also fuelled the rise of the anti-gender movement.
Diamond's report and Colapinto's subsequent book about Reimer influenced several medical practices, reputations, and even current understanding of the biology of gender. The case accelerated the decline of sex reassignment and surgery for unambiguous XY infants with micropenis, various other rare congenital malformations, or penile loss in infancy.
Colapinto's book described unpleasant childhood therapy sessions, implying that Money had ignored or concealed the developing evidence that Reimer's reassignment to female was not going well.
The case has also been treated by Judith Butler in their 2004 book Undoing Gender, which examines gender, sex, psychoanalysis, and the medical treatment of people with differences in sex development.
Documentaries
The BBC science series Horizon based two episodes on his life. "The Boy Who Was Turned into a Girl" aired in 2000 and "Dr Money and the Boy with No Penis" in 2004.
A 2001 episode of the PBS documentary series Nova entitled "Sex: Unknown" investigated David's life and the theory behind the decision to raise him as female.
An episode of BBC Radio 4 Mind Changers, "Case Study: John/Joan—The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl", discusses the impact on two competing psychological theories of nature vs. nurture.
In popular culture
- The Chicago Hope episode "Boys Will Be Girls" (2000) was based on Reimer's life. The episode explored the theme of a child's right not to undergo sexual reassignment surgery without consent.
- Reimer and his mother appeared on an episode of The Oprah Winfrey Show in 2000.
- The Law & Order: Special Victims Unit episode "Identity" (2005) was based on David and Brian Reimer's lives and their treatment by Money.
- "Hymn of the Medical Oddity", a song by the Winnipeg-based indie rock band The Weakerthans, concerns Reimer.
- Boy (2016), a play produced by the Ensemble Studio Theatre, was inspired by Reimer's story.
- Taiwanese film Born to be Human (2021) shares a similar plotline to Reimer's story, where a child undergoes sexual reassignment surgery without consent at the insistence of an authoritative doctor.
See also
- Herculine Barbin
- Genital modification and mutilation
- History of intersex surgery
- Nature versus nurture
- Nicole Maines
- Penectomy
Bibliography
- Balthazart, Jacques (2012). The Biology of Homosexuality. New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199838820.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-983882-0.
- Beh, Hazel Glenn; Diamond, Milton (2005). "David Reimer's Legacy: Limiting Parental Discretion". Cardozo Journal of Law and Gender. 12 (5): 5–30. hdl:10125/34765. ISSN 1074-5785. SSRN 1446966.
- Bockting, Walter O. (2010). "Nurturing Nature and the Nature of Science: Toward Transcendence". The Journal of Sex Research. 37 (4): 378–379. doi:10.1080/00224490009552061. ISSN 1559-8519. S2CID 216092298.
- Butler, Judith (2004). Undoing Gender. New York: Routledge (published 2015). ISBN 978-0-203-49962-7.
- Colapinto, John (2001a). As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-019211-2.
- ——— (2001b). As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl. New York: Harper Perennial (published 2006). ISBN 978-0-06-092959-6.
- Diamond, Milton; Sigmundson, H. Keith (1997). "Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-Term Review and Clinical Implications". Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine. 151 (3): 298–304. doi:10.1001/archpedi.1997.02170400084015. PMID 9080940. Archived from the original on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 15 May 2013 – via University of Hawaii.
- Eskridge, William N., Jr.; Hunter, Nan D. (2003). Sexuality, Gender and the Law: 2003 Supplement. New York: Foundation Press. ISBN 978-1-58778-655-6.
- Gaetano, Phil (2017). "David Reimer and John Money Gender Reassignment Controversy: The John/Joan Case". Embryo Project Encyclopedia. Tempe, Arizona: Arizona State University. hdl:10776/13009. ISSN 1940-5030. Archived from the original on 8 May 2018. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
- Goldie, Terry (2014). The Man Who Invented Gender: Engaging the Ideas of John Money. Vancouver: UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-2794-2.
- Halpern, Diane F. (2012). Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities (4th ed.). New York: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-136-72283-7.
- Harper, Catherine (2007). Intersex. Oxford: Berg. ISBN 978-1-84788-339-1.
- Karkazis, Katrina (2008). Fixing Sex: Intersex, Medical Authority, and Lived Experience. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-8921-7.
- Koch, Michaela (2017). Discursive Intersexions: Daring Bodies between Myth, Medicine, and Memoir. Practices of Subjectivation. Vol. 9. Bielefeld, Germany: Transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-3705-6.
- Mann, Sandi (2016). Psychology: A Complete Introduction. London: John Murray Learning. ISBN 978-1-4736-0930-3.
- Marinucci, Mimi (2010). Feminism Is Queer: The Intimate Connection Between Queer and Feminist Theory. London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-84813-475-1.
- McQuail, Josephine A., ed. (2018). Janet Frame in Focus: Women Analyze the Works of the New Zealand Writer. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-1-4766-2854-7.
- Rolls, Geoff (2015). Classic Case Studies in Psychology (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-84872-270-5.
- Walker, Jesse (2010). "The Death of David Reimer: A Tale of Sex, Science, and Abuse". In Plante, Rebecca F.; Maurer, Lis M. (eds.). Doing Gender Diversity: Readings in Theory and Real-World Experience. New York: Routledge (published 2018). pp. 33ff. ISBN 978-0-429-98056-5.
- Warnke, Georgia (2008). After Identity: Rethinking Race, Sex, and Gender. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-39180-4.
Further reading
- Colapinto, John (2004). "Gender Gap: What Were the Real Reasons behind David Reimer's Suicide?". Slate. Archived from the original on 27 April 2013. Retrieved 13 February 2009.
- Money, John; Ehrhardt, Anke A. (1972). Man & Woman, Boy & Girl: The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Money, John; Tucker, Patricia (1975). Sexual Signatures: On Being a Man or a Woman. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 9780316578264.
- Preves, Sharon E. (2002). "Sexing the Intersexed: An Analysis of Sociocultural Responses to Intersexuality". Signs. 27 (2): 523–556. doi:10.1086/495696. ISSN 1545-6943. JSTOR 3175791. S2CID 29560193.
External links