A true threat is a threatening communication that can be prosecuted under the law. It is distinct from a threat that is made in jest. The U.S. Supreme Court has held that true threats are not protected under the U.S. Constitution based on three justifications: preventing fear, preventing the disruption that follows from that fear, and diminishing the likelihood that the threatened violence will occur. There is some concern that even satirical speech could be regarded as a "true threat" due to concern over terrorism.
The true threat doctrine was established in the 1969 Supreme Court case Watts v. United States. In that case, an eighteen-year-old male was convicted in a Washington, D.C. District Court for violating a statute prohibiting persons from knowingly and willfully making threats to harm or kill the President of the United States. The conviction was based on a statement made by Watts, in which he said, "[i]f they ever make me carry a rifle the first man I want to get in my sights is L.B.J." Watts appealed, leading to the Supreme Court finding the statute constitutional on its face, but reversing the conviction of Watts.
In reviewing the lower court's analysis of the case, the Court noted that "a threat must be distinguished from what is constitutionally protected speech." The Court recognized that "uninhibited, robust, and wideopen" political debate can at times be characterized by "vehement, caustic, and sometimes unpleasantly sharp attacks on government and public officials." In light of the context of Watts' statement - and the laughter that it received from the crowd - the Court found that it was more "a kind of very crude offensive method of stating a political opposition to the President" than a "true threat." In so holding, the Court established that there is a "true threat" exception to protected speech, but also that the statement must be viewed in its context and distinguished from protected hyperbole. The opinion, however, stopped short of defining precisely what constituted a "true threat."
See also
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Public displays and ceremonies |
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Statutory religious exemptions |
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Public funding |
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Religion in public schools |
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Private religious speech |
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Internal church affairs |
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Taxpayer standing |
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Blue laws |
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Other |
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Unprotected speech |
Incitement and sedition
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Libel and false speech |
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Fighting words and the heckler's veto
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True threats |
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Obscenity |
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Rosen v. United States (1896)
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United States v. One Book Called Ulysses (S.D.N.Y. 1933)
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Roth v. United States (1957)
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One, Inc. v. Olesen (1958)
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Smith v. California (1959)
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Marcus v. Search Warrant (1961)
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MANual Enterprises, Inc. v. Day (1962)
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Jacobellis v. Ohio (1964)
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Quantity of Books v. Kansas (1964)
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Ginzburg v. United States (1966)
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Memoirs v. Massachusetts (1966)
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Redrup v. New York (1967)
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Ginsberg v. New York (1968)
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Stanley v. Georgia (1969)
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United States v. Thirty-seven Photographs (1971)
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Kois v. Wisconsin (1972)
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Miller v. California (1973)
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Paris Adult Theatre I v. Slaton (1973)
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United States v. 12 200-ft. Reels of Film (1973)
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Jenkins v. Georgia (1974)
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Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. v. Conrad (1975)
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Erznoznik v. City of Jacksonville (1975)
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Young v. American Mini Theatres, Inc. (1976)
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Vance v. Universal Amusement Co., Inc. (1980)
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American Booksellers Ass'n, Inc. v. Hudnut (7th Cir. 1985)
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People v. Freeman (Cal. 1988)
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United States v. X-Citement Video, Inc. (1994)
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Reno v. ACLU (1997)
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United States v. Playboy Entertainment Group, Inc. (2000)
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City of Los Angeles v. Alameda Books, Inc. (2002)
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Ashcroft v. ACLU I (2002)
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United States v. American Library Ass'n (2003)
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Ashcroft v. ACLU II (2004)
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Nitke v. Gonzales (S.D.N.Y. 2005)
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United States v. Williams (2008)
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American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression v. Strickland (6th Cir. 2009)
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United States v. Kilbride (9th Cir. 2009)
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United States v. Stevens (2010)
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Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Ass'n (2011)
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FCC v. Fox Television Stations, Inc. (2012)
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Speech integral to criminal conduct |
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Strict scrutiny |
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Vagueness |
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Symbolic speech versus conduct |
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Content-based restrictions |
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Content-neutral restrictions |
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Compelled speech |
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Compelled subsidy of others' speech |
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Government grants and subsidies |
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Government as speaker |
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Loyalty oaths |
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School speech |
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Public employees |
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Hatch Act and similar laws |
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Licensing and restriction of speech |
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Commercial speech |
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Valentine v. Chrestensen (1942)
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Rowan v. U.S. Post Office Dept. (1970)
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Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Comm'n on Human Relations (1973)
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Lehman v. Shaker Heights (1974)
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Goldfarb v. Virginia State Bar (1975)
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Bigelow v. Virginia (1975)
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Virginia State Pharmacy Bd. v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council (1976)
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Linmark Assoc., Inc. v. Township of Willingboro (1977)
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Carey v. Population Services International (1977)
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Bates v. State Bar of Arizona (1977)
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In re Primus (1978)
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Ohralik v. Ohio State Bar Association (1978)
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Friedman v. Rogers (1979)
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Consol. Edison Co. v. Public Serv. Comm'n (1980)
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Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission (1980)
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Metromedia, Inc. v. San Diego (1981)
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In re R.M.J. (1982)
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Hoffman Estates v. The Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc. (1982)
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Zauderer v. Off. of Disciplinary Counsel of Supreme Court of Ohio (1985)
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Pacific Gas & Electric Co. v. Public Utilities Comm'n of California (1986)
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Posadas de Puerto Rico Assoc. v. Tourism Co. of Puerto Rico (1986)
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San Francisco Arts & Athletics, Inc. v. U.S. Olympic Committee (1987)
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Shapero v. Kentucky Bar Association (1988)
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Riley v. Nat'l Fed'n of the Blind (1988)
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State University of New York v. Fox (1989)
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Peel v. Attorney Registration and Disciplinary Commission of Illinois (1990)
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City of Cincinnati v. Discovery Network (1993)
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Edenfield v. Fane (1993)
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United States v. Edge Broadcasting Co. (1993)
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Ibanez v. Florida Dept. of Business and Professional Regulation, Bd. of Accountancy (1994)
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Lebron v. National Railroad Passenger Corp. (1995)
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Rubin v. Coors Brewing Co. (1995)
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Florida Bar v. Went For It, Inc. (1995)
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44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island (1996)
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Glickman v. Wileman Brothers & Elliot, Inc. (1997)
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Los Angeles Police Department v. United Reporting Publishing Co. (1999)
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United States v. United Foods Inc. (2001)
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Lorillard Tobacco Co. v. Reilly (2001)
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Thompson v. Western States Medical Center (2002)
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Nike, Inc. v. Kasky (2003)
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Johanns v. Livestock Marketing Ass'n (2005)
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Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Assn. v. Brentwood Academy (2007)
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Milavetz, Gallop & Milavetz, P.A. v. United States (2010)
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Sorrell v. IMS Health Inc. (2011)
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Expressions Hair Design v. Schneiderman (2017)
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Matal v. Tam (2017)
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Iancu v. Brunetti (2019)
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Barr v. American Association of Political Consultants (2020)
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Campaign finance and political speech |
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Anonymous speech |
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State action |
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Official retaliation |
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Boycotts |
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Prisons |
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Organizations |
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Future Conduct |
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Solicitation |
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Membership restriction |
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Primaries and elections |
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