List of substances used in rituals
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This page lists substances used in ritualistic context.
Psychoactive use
See also: List of psychoactive plants; List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals; and religion and drugs
Entheogens
This is a list of species and genera that are used as entheogens or are used in an entheogenic concoction (such as ayahuasca). For ritualistic use they may be classified as hallucinogens. The active principles and historical significance of each are also listed to illustrate the requirements necessary to be categorized as an entheogen. The psychoactive substances are usually classified as soft drugs in terms of drug harmfulness.
Animal
| Vernacular name | Species | Phytochemical(s) | Substance effect class | Regions/Cultures of use |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bufotoxins | Bufo alvarius (and other Bufo spp.) | Secretion: 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin (et al.) | Psychedelic | Bufo alvarious secretion has gained popularity in spiritual retreats. Controversial interpretation of Mesoamerican art. |
| Bullet ant venom | Paraponera clavata | Secretion: Poneratoxin | Deliriant | The Satere-Mawe people use bullet ants to get extremely painful stings in their initiation rites twenty times. |
Mushroom
| Vernacular name | Species | Phytochemical(s) | Substance effect class | Regions/Cultures of use |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dictyonema huaorani | Dictyonema huaorani | 5-MeO-DMT, DMT, psilocybin | Psychedelic | Confirmed used by shamans. |
| Fly agaric | Amanita muscaria | Muscimol, ibotenic acid | Depressant, and dissociative | Siberian shamans. Scandinavia. |
| Panther cap | Amanita pantherina | Muscimol, ibotenic acid | Depressant, and dissociative | |
| Psilocybin mushroom | Psilocybe spp. (etc.) |
Psilocybin and psilocin; baeocystin and norbaeocystin (some species) |
Psychedelic | Mazatec |
Plant
| Vernacular name | Species | Phytochemical(s) | Substance effect class | Regions/Cultures of use |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| African dream herb | Entada rheedii | Seed | Oneirogen | The species is employed in African traditional medicine to induce vivid dreams, enabling communication with the spirit world. The inner meat of the seed would be either consumed directly, or the meat would be chopped, dried, mixed with other herbs like tobacco and smoked just before sleep to induce the desired dreams. |
| African dream root | Silene undulata | Root: Possibly triterpenoid saponins | Oneirogen | Xhosa people of South Africa. |
| Angel's trumpet | Brugmansia spp. | Seed, flower, leaf: Tropane alkaloids | Deliriant | South America, sometimes used as part of ayahuasca. |
| Ayahuasca | Banisteriopsis caapi | Bark: Harmine 0.31-0.84%,tetrahydroharmine, telepathine, dihydroshihunine, 5-MeO-DMT | Psychedelic | South America; people of the Amazon Rainforest. UDV of Brazil and United States. |
| Bitter-grass | Calea ternifolia | Leaf: Caleicines and caleochromenes | Oneirogen | The Chontal people of Oaxaca reportedly use the plant, known locally as thle-pela-kano, during divination. |
| Bolivian torch cactus | Echinopsis lageniformis | Stem: Mescaline | Psychedelic | South America |
| Cannabis (and cannabis concentrates) | Cannabis spp. | Flower: Cannabinoids (THC, and CBD) | Psychedelic | Hindu religion in India, Rastafari movements, Cannabis-based religions like First Church of Cannabis or International Church of Cannabis and other various groups (see entheogenic use of cannabis) |
| Chacruna | Psychotria viridis | Leaf: DMT | Psychedelic | UDV of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and the Brazilian church. Santo Daime have used it as part of ayahuasca. |
| Chaliponga | Diplopterys cabrerana | Leaf: 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, DMT | Psychedelic | Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru as part of ayahuasca. |
| Changa | A DMT/MAOI-infused smoking blend | DMT/MAOI | Psychedelic | Changa has gained popularity in spiritual retreats. |
| Christmasvine | Turbina corymbosa | Seed: LSA, lysergol, and turbicoryn; up to 0.03% lysergic acid alkaloids | Psychedelic | Mazatec |
| Harmal (espand) | Peganum harmala | Seed: Harmaline and other harmala alkaloids | Psychedelic | Iran and the Middle East. |
| Hawaiian baby woodrose | Argyreia nervosa | Seed: 0.325% ergoline derivatives of dry weight. | Psychedelic | Huna shamans used them according to various oral histories. |
| Henbane | Hyoscyamus niger | Seed, flower, leaf: Tropane alkaloids | Deliriant | Ancient Greece and witches of the Middle Ages. |
| Iboga | Tabernanthe iboga | Root bark: Ibogaine | Psychedelic | Bwiti religion of West Central Africa. Used by Western nations to treat opioid addiction. |
| Jimson weed | Datura stramonium | Seed, flower, leaf: Tropane alkaloids | Deliriant | Algonquin, Navajo, Cherokee, Luiseño and the indigenous peoples of Marie-Galante used this plant in sacred ceremonies for its hallucinogenic properties. It has also been used by Sadhus of India, and the Táltos of the Magyar (Hungary). |
| Jurema | Mimosa tenuiflora syn. Mimosa hostilis | Root bark: 1-1.7% DMT and yuremamine | Psychedelic | Used by the Jurema Cult (O Culto da Jurema) in the Northeastern Brazil. |
| Labrador tea | Rhododendron spp. | Leaf: Ledol, some grayanotoxins | Deliriant | Caucasian peasants used Rhododendron plants for these effects in shamanistic rituals. |
| Mad honey | Rhododendron ponticum | Nectar: Grayanotoxins | Deliriant | In Nepal, this type of honey is used by the Gurung people both for its supposed medicinal and hallucinogenic properties. |
| Mexican morning glory | Ipomoea tricolor | Seed: Ergoline derivatives (LSA disputed) | Psychedelic | Zapotecs |
| Beach moonflower | Ipomoea violacea | Seed: Ergoline derivatives (LSA disputed) | Psychedelic | Mazatec |
| Nyakwána | Virola elongata | Bark, roots, leaves and flowers: DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT | Psychedelic | The Yanomami people use the powdered resin as an entheogen known as nyakwána which is inhaled or "snuffed" into the nasal cavity, it contains a high concentration of 5-MeO-DMT and DMT. |
| Peruvian torch cactus | Echinopsis peruviana | Stem: Mescaline | Psychedelic | Pre-Incan Chavín rituals in Peru. |
| Peyote | Lophophora williamsii | Stem: Mescaline | Psychedelic | Native American Church is known as peyotism. Also used in the Oshara tradition. |
| Red ucuuba | Virola sebifera | Bark: DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT | Psychedelic | The smoke of the inner bark of the tree is used by shamans of the indigenous people of Venezuela in cases of fever conditions, or cooked for driving out evil ghosts. |
| Salvia | Salvia divinorum | Leaf: Salvinorin A and other salvinorins | Psychedelic | Mazatec |
| San Pedro cactus | Echinopsis pachanoi | Stem: Mescaline | Psychedelic | South America |
| Vilca | Anadenanthera colubrina | Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 12.4% bufotenin. DMT | Psychedelic | There have been reports of active use of vilca by Wichi shamans, under the name hatáj. |
| Yopo | Anadenanthera peregrina | Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 7.4% bufotenin. DMT | Psychedelic | Archaeological evidence of insufflation use within the period 500-1000 AD, in northern Chile, has been reported. |
Chemicals
Many man-made chemicals with little human history have been recognized to catalyze intense spiritual experiences, and many synthetic entheogens are simply slight modifications of their naturally occurring counterparts. Some synthetic substances like 4-AcO-DMT are prodrugs that metabolize into psychoactive substances that have been used as entheogens. While synthetic DMT and mescaline are reported to have identical entheogenic qualities as extracted or plant-based sources, the experience may wildly vary due to the lack of numerous psychoactive alkaloids that constitute the material. This is similar to how isolated THC produces very different effects than an extract that retains the many cannabinoids of the plant such as cannabidiol and cannabinol. A pharmaceutical version of the entheogenic brew ayahuasca is called Pharmahuasca.
| Substance | IUPAC name | Substance effect class | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2C-B | 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylethanamine | Psychedelic | 2C-B is used as entheogen by the Sangoma, Nyanga, and Amagqirha people over their traditional plants. It is referred to as Ubulawu Nomathotholo, which roughly translates to "Medicine of the Singing Ancestors". |
| 4-Hydroxy-5-methoxydimethyltryptamine (psilomethoxin) | 4-Hydroxy-5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine | Psychedelic | Psilomethoxin is used as a religious sacrament by the Church of Psilomethoxin. |
| 5-MeO-DMT | 2-(5-Methoxy-1H-indol-3-yl)-N,N-dimethylethan-2-amine | Psychedelic | See species |
| Bufotenin | 3-[2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-5-ol | Psychedelic | See species |
| DMT | 2-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-N,N-dimethylethanamine | Psychedelic | See species |
| DPT | N-[2-(1H-indol-3-yl)]ethyl-N-propylpropan-1-amine | Psychedelic | DPT is used as a religious sacrament by the Temple of the True Inner Light who believes that DPT and other entheogens are physical manifestations of God. |
| Harmaline | 7-methoxy-1-methyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole | Psychedelic | See Peganum harmala |
| Ibogaine | 12-Methoxyibogamine | Psychedelic | See Tabernanthe iboga |
| LSA | (8β)-9,10-didehydro-6-methyl-ergoline-8-carboxamide | Psychedelic | See species |
| LSD | (6aR,9R)-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide | Psychedelic | Used by League for Spiritual Discovery (LSD), and the Neo-American Church. |
| MDMA | (RS)-1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-N-methylpropan-2-amine | Entactogen | Small doses of MDMA are used as an entheogen to enhance prayer or meditation by some religious practitioners. |
| Muscimol | 5-(Aminomethyl)-isoxazol-3-ol | Deliriant | See Amanita spp. |
| Psilocybin | [3-(2-Dimethylaminoethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl] dihydrogen phosphate | Psychedelic | (See also Psilocybe spp) Prodrug for Psilocin. The Mazatec curandera María Sabina was celebrating a mushroom velada with pills of synthetic psilocybin named Indocybin synthesized by Albert Hofmann. |
| Salvinorin A | methyl (2S,4aR,6aR,7R,9S,10aS,10bR)-9-(acetyloxy)-2-(furan-3-yl)-6a,10b-dimethyl-4,10-dioxo-dodecahydro-1H-naphtho[2,1-c]pyran-7-carboxylate | Psychedelic | See Salvia divinorum |
Prodrugs
| Substance | IUPAC name | Substance effect class | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1A-LSD | (6aR,9R)-4-acetyl-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide | Psychedelic | Prodrug (suspected) for LSD |
| 1P-LSD | (6aR,9R)-N,N-Diethyl-7-methyl-4-propanoyl-6,6a,8,9-tetrahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide | Psychedelic | Prodrug (suspected) for LSD. In tests on mice 1cP-LSD was found to be an active psychedelic with similar potency to 1P-LSD. |
| 4-AcO-DMT | 3-[2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-4-yl acetate | Psychedelic | Prodrug for psilocin (found in psilocybin mushroom, see also psilocybin) |
This page lists non-psychedelic psychoactive substances which are consumed in ritual contexts for their consciousness-altering effects. Non-psychoactive consumption like symbolic ingestion of psychoactive substances is not mentioned here.
Non-psychedelic substances used in rituals
This is a list of psychoactive substances which are consumed in ritual contexts for their consciousness-altering effects. Some of these drugs are classified as hard drugs in terms of drug harmfulness.
Animal
| Vernacular name | Species | Phytochemical(s) | Substance effect class | Regions/Cultures of use |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kambo (or sapo) | Phyllomedusa bicolor | Secretion: Opioid peptides (deltorphin, deltorphin I, deltorphin II and dermorphin). | Depressant | Increasing popularity in cleansing rituals and depression treatment. |
Plant
The plant parts are listed to prevent accidents. For example, kava roots should always be used because the leaves of the plant are known to cause hepatoxicity and death.
| Vernacular name | Species | Phytochemical(s) | Substance effect class | Regions/Cultures of use |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alcohol | Yeast byproduct: Alcohol fermented species | Alcohol | Depressant | During the Jewish holiday of Purim, Jews are obligated to drink until their judgmental abilities become impaired. |
| Aztec tobacco | Nicotiana rustica | Leaf: up to 9% nicotine. MAOI beta-carbolines. | Stimulant | Mapacho (South America) and thuoc lao (thuốc lào) (Vietnam). Nicotiana rustica is used by Amazonian tobacco shamans known as tobaqueros.Nicotiana rustica is a Vernacular ingredient of Ayahuasca in some parts of the Amazon. |
| Blue water lily | Nymphaea caerulea | Flower: Aporphine, and nuciferine | Depressant | Mayans and the Ancient Egyptians. |
| Chili pepper | Capsicum spp. | Fruit: Capsaicin | Deliriant | "While the Inca may have recognized chili’s potent spiritual medicine, they weren’t the only culture to do so. Chilies were mixed with tobacco and other plants by shamans and medicine people in pre-Columbian Central America to aid in journeys to the upper and lower worlds on behalf of mankind." |
| Coca, coca tea | Erythroxylaceae spp. | Leaf: 0.3-1.5% cocaine | Stimulant | Coca has been a vital part of the religious cosmology of the Andean peoples of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, northern Argentina, and Chile from the pre-Inca period through the present. In addition, coca use in shamanic rituals is well documented wherever local native populations have cultivated the plant. For example, the Tayronas of Colombia's Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta use to chew the plant before engaging in extended meditation and prayer. |
| Cocoa | Theobroma cacao | Bean: Theobromine, small amount of MAOIs, etc. (see full list) | Stimulant | Ritualistic practices originated among the Olmec, Maya and Mexica (Aztec). |
| Coffee | Coffea spp. | Seed: 0.06-3.2% caffeine | Stimulant | The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century, in Yemen's Sufi monasteries. The Sufi monks drank coffee as an aid to concentration and even spiritual intoxication when they chanted the name of God. |
| Corn beer | Yeast byproduct: Corn (Zea mays), fermented | Alcohol | Depressant | The corn beer Chicha de jora was once a sacred drink of the Incas, often reserved for the most cherished of ceremonies. Tesguino is a corn beer made by the Tarahumara people of the Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico. It is brewed for local celebrations related to Holy Week. For the Tarahumara, the beer is an elixir for healing, a barter item and is considered a sacred beverage. |
| Ilex guayusa | Ilex guayusa | Leaves: 1.73–3.48 % caffeine.Theanine | Stimulant | A ritual use by the Kichua people involves drinking guayusa infusion to have foretelling dreams for successful hunting expeditions.Ilex guayusa is used in ayahuasca admixtures for its healing powers. |
| Kava | Piper methysticum | Root: 3-20% kavalactones | Depressant | Kava cultures are the religious and cultural traditions of western Oceania which consume kava. |
| Khat | Catha edulis | Leaf: Up to 14% cathine | Stimulant | For centuries, religious leaders have consumed the leaves to stay awake during long nights of prayer. |
| Kratom | Mitragyna speciosa | Leaves: Opioids (1–6% mitragynine, 0.01–0.04% 7-hydroxymitragynine) | Depressant | In Thailand, kratom was "used as a snack to receive guests and was part of the ritual worship of ancestors and gods." (Saingam et al.) |
| Opium, Opium poppy | Papaver somniferum | Latex exudate: 0.3–25% morphine and codeine 0.5-4% | Depressant | From the earliest finds, opium appears to have had ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power. In Egypt, the use of opium was generally restricted to priests, magicians, and warriors, its invention is credited to Thoth, and it was said to have been given by Isis to Ra as treatment for a headache. A figure of the Minoan "goddess of the narcotics", wearing a crown of three opium poppies, BCE, was recovered from the Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, together with a simple smoking apparatus. The Greek gods Hypnos (Sleep), Nyx (Night), and Thanatos (Death) were depicted wreathed in poppies or holding them. Poppies also frequently adorned statues of Apollo, Asklepios, Pluto, Demeter, Aphrodite, Kybele and Isis, symbolizing nocturnal oblivion. The opium poppy was a magical ritual plant among the Germanic tribes. |
| Pituri | Duboisia hopwoodii, Duboisia myoporoides, Nicotiana spp. | Nicotine, tropane alkaloids | A stimulant (or, after extended use, a depressant) chewed by Aboriginal Australians. | Some authors use the term to refer only to the plant Duboisia hopwoodii and its leaves and any chewing mixture containing its leaves. |
| Rakia | Collective term for fruit spirits (or fruit brandy) popular in the Balkans. | Alcohol | Depressant | Although wine is the essential part of the Eucharist rite in the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches in the region, rakia has found uses in certain religious and related rituals across the Balkans. |
| Tea | Camellia sinensis | Leaf: 0.4-9.3% caffeine and theanine 0-5-1.4% | Stimulant | Tea has been drunk by Buddhist monks since the Sui Dynasty (589–618 BC) to maintain a state of “mindful alertness” during long periods of meditation. Tea ceremonies have been ritualized for centuries. |
| Wine | Yeast byproduct: Grape (Vitis spp.) (fermented) | Alcohol | Depressant | Wine was used in rituals and worshipped by the Egyptians and the Greeks, specifically in worship of Dionysus. |
| Beer | Yeast byproduct: Barley ( Liquid Gold spp.) (fermented) | Alcohol | Depressant |
Chemicals
| Substance | IUPAC name | Substance effect class | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alcohol | Ethanol | Depressant | See Vitis spp. |
| Caffeine | 1,3,7-Trimethylpurine-2,6-dione | Stimulant | See Coffea |
| Cathine | (1S,2S)-2-amino-1-phenylpropan-1-ol | Stimulant | See Catha edulis |
| Cocaine | Methyl (1R,2R,3S,5S)-3-(benzoyloxy)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate | Stimulant | Coca addicts ingest between 60 and 80 milligrams of cocaine each time they chew the leaves according to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). However, other sources claims that the coca leaf, when consumed in its natural form or as coca tea, does not induce a physiological or psychological dependence, nor does abstinence after long-term use produce symptoms typical to substance addiction. See also Erythroxylum coca, and Erythroxylum novogranatense spp. |
| Codeine | (5α,6α)-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-3-methoxy-17-methylmorphinan-6-ol | Depressant | Prodrug for morphine |
| Kavalactones | Depressant | See Piper methysticum | |
| Morphine | (4R,4aR,7S,7aR,12bS)-3-Methyl-2,3,4,4a,7,7a-hexahydro-1H-4,12-methanobenzofuro[3,2-e]isoquinoline-7,9-diol | Depressant | See Papaver somniferum |
Poly drug use of non-psychedelics and entheogens used in rituals
| Vernacular name | Species | Phytochemical(s) | Substance effect class | Regions/Cultures of use |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alcohol + vilca | Anadenanthera colubrina | Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 12.4% bufotenin. DMT | Psychedelic + depressant | Between 2013 and 2017, archaeological excavations at the Quilcapampa site in southern Peru, found that the Wari used seeds from the vilca tree and combined the hallucinogenic drug with chicha, or beer made from the molle tree. |
| Psilocybin mushroom + Cocoa | Theobroma cacao | Bean: Theobromine, small amount of MAOIs, etc. (see full list) | Stimulant | Aztecs combined cacao with psilocybin mushrooms, a polysubstance combination referred to as "cacahua-xochitl", which literally means "chocolate-mushrooms". |
Sober use
See also: Religious use of incense
Disclaimer: Salvia apiana and Bursera fagaroides do not contain any psychoactive substances at all, they are solely used for ritualistic purpose while Aztec tobacco, Morning glories, and Syrian rue (all listed in the #Psychoactive_use table), and Cacao Beans (mild) are psychoactive when consumed.
Flora
| Vernacular name | Species | Use | Regions/Cultures of use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aztec tobacco | Nicotiana rustica | Incense | |
| Cacao bean | Theobroma cacao | Ritual offering | |
| Copal | Bursera fagaroides | Incense | |
| Morning glory | T. corymbosa, and I. violacea | Numerology | "indigenous ritual use indicates dose levels for T. corymbosa, and I. violacea which are far lower than that perceived as necessary to effect hallucinosis in members of modern Western cultures. In Mexico, the only place in the world where the ingestion of morning glory seeds has an established tradition of shamanic usage, a hallucinogenic dose is said to be only thirteen seeds, a ritual amount based on religious numerology rather than chemical analysis." |
| Syrian rue | Peganum harmala | Incense | "In the Himalayas, shamans use syrian rue seeds as a magical incense, inhaling it to enter a trance state in which they can engage in sexual intercourse with divining goddesses, who are said to give them information and great healing powers (Ratsch 1998, 426-427)." |
| White Sage | Salvia apiana | Incense |